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• Cardiac causes: –– Acute myocardial infarction.–– Angina pectoris.–– Pericarditis–– Myocarditis.–– Dissecting aortic aneurysm. • Non-cardiac causes: –– Spontaneous pneumothorax.–– Pulmonary embolism.–– Reflux oesophagitis.–– Oesophageal tear (Mallory Weis syndrome).–– Mediastinitis.––…
Definition It is the failure of the heart to maintain adequate cardiac output to meet the demand of the tissue or can do so only at the expense of an…
White Coat Hypertension When blood pressure is recorded in a hospital set-up or in the physician’s clinic, there may be transient rise in BP in a normal individual. This is…
Definition Persistent rise of arterial BP above the arbitrarily normal range. If systolic blood pressure > 140 mm Hg, diastolic BP > 90 mm Hg, the patient is diagnosed as…
Definition Congestive cardiac failure (CCF) actually means right-sided heart failure. There is inability of the right ventricle to propel blood resulting in backflow of blood to systemic veins causing engorged…
Causes of Biventricular Heart Failure • Cardiomyopathy (dilated cardiomyopathy). • Myocarditis. • Ischaemic heart disease (such as extensive myocardial infarction). • Right-sided heart failure secondary to left-sided heart failure (e.g.…
Definition Acute left ventricular failure (LVF) is the failure of left ventricle to propel blood in the systemic circulation. As a result, there is accumulation of blood in pulmonary circulation…
What is Aortic Stenosis (AS) Normal area of aortic valve is 1.5–2 cm². It is severe, if the area is < 1 cm². If the valve area is < 0.7…
Causes of Pulmonary Regurgitation • Dilatation of pulmonary valve secondary to pulmonary hypertension.• Secondary to mitral stenosis producing an early diastolic murmur (Graham Steel murmur).• Rheumatic fever.• Carcinoid syndrome. Symptoms…
Causes of Pulmonary Stenosis • Congenital (most common).• Associated with Carcinoid syndrome, Noonan’s syndrome, Fallot’s tetralogy.• May occur, if there is rubella in pregnancy. Symptoms • May be asymptomatic.• Symptoms,…